NOSOTROS LOS PORTUGUESES (IV): AEIOU DOMINIUM MUNDI
La Monarquía Portuguesa
logró consolidarse a lo largo de la Baja Edad Media manteniendo su autonomía
respecto a los poderes universales. Consiguió mantenerse al margen de las
cuestiones del Imperio Romano Germánico y también supo maniobrar con
independencia frente a las presiones de la Iglesia. Sin embargo no logró
escapar a su influencia en el Renacimiento. Para entender este proceso tenemos
que retroceder en el tiempo.
La Nea Roma
(Constantinopla) es posiblemente la fuente de la idea de la fusión de los
poderes espiritual y temporal en la figura de un Sacerdos Imperator. Los Reyes-sacerdotes son una inspiración
oriental y, de hecho, ya existían en la Roma clásica, introducidos por los
emperadores orientales de la Dinastía de los Severos. Estas influencias
orientales eclosionaron en la Monarquía bizantina, de clara orientación
teocrática.
El Papado romano,
pretendida cabeza de la jerarquía eclesiástica (en el marco de una
concentración de poder iniciada en los tiempos del Bajo Imperio Romano),
terminó desarrollando la “doctrina de las dos espadas” (Utrumque Gladium). Al parecer la doctrina fue establecida por el
Papa Gelasio en carta dirigida al emperador bizantino Anastasio I (491-518).
Según ella, de los dos poderes existentes el espiritual debía ser superior al
temporal. De esa manera el Papado romano declaraba su intención de no estar
sometido al emperador de Constantinopla. La idea de supremacía papal se
sustentó en el Agustinismo Político, la Plenitudo
Potestatis y la apócrifa Donatio
Constantini.
La doctrina romana fue
puesta en práctica recurriendo al apoyo del Reino Franco, aliado de Roma desde
los tiempos de Clodoveo (481-507). Con la coronación de Carlomagno por el Papa
León III en el año 800 se realizaba el proyecto de la Restauratio Imperii, un poco la respuesta a la Renovatio o Recuperatio
Imperii del emperador bizantino Justiniano I. Pero Carlomagno se opuso a la
doctrina de las dos espadas siendo un primer exponente del cesaropapismo
occidental: la reunión de los dos poderes en la figura del Emperador y la
supeditación del aparato eclesiástico a sus dictados.
Recién con los decretos de
1075, emitidos por el Papa Gregorio VII (1073-1085), se establecía la Dictatus Papae, según la cual el Papa era
el único titular legítimo del Imperio, quedando el Emperador relegado a un
segundo plano subordinado. Los emperadores replicaron con la doctrina de Translatio Imperii, que consideraba al
Imperio como una figura anterior a la Iglesia y, por ende, superior a ella.
Esto fue la esencia de la Querella de las Investiduras (1075-1122) y de la
larga sucesión de conflictos entre Güelfos y Gibelinos que van desde 1140 hasta
1454 que enfrentó a los poderes universales a lo largo de la Baja Edad Media e
inicios del Renacimiento.
El enfrentamiento debilitó
a ambos poderes, Iglesia e Imperio, en beneficio de los reinos europeos que
fueron consolidando su soberanía territorial, política y económica. El Gran
Interregno (1256-1273) que mantuvo la Sede Vacante en el Imperio Romano
Germánico, y el Cisma de Occidente (1378-1417), durante el cual tres Papas se
disputaron el poder, dañaron la imagen de los poderes universales de una forma
casi irrecuperable.
Sin embargo el Dominium Mundi no sería abandonado tan
fácilmente. Lo que hizo renacer ambos poderes fue la Reforma o Cisma Protestante
(1517-1555). La gran concentración de poder en la figura del Emperador Carlos V
de la Casa Habsburgo (1520-58) haría renacer el Dominium Mundi imperial en la figura de la Universitas Christiana. La Iglesia, en tanto, se puso al frente de
la lucha contra la Reforma tras el Concilio de Trento (1545-63).
La Casa Habsburgo se había
hecho con el poder en el Sacro Imperio durante el Gran Interregno, cuando
Rodolfo I se hizo coronar como Rey de Romanos (es decir, Emperador no
legitimado por la Iglesia) en 1273. Recién en 1452 Federico III conseguiría ser
coronado Emperador legítimo por el Papa. Federico III (1415-1493) fue el
primero en agregar las famosas y misteriosas cuatro letras (A.E.I.O.U.) a la Casa
Habsburgo. Muchos creen que significa Alles Erdreich ist Österreich untertan (Todos estarán sometidos a Austria). Y por
cierto que el lema casi se cumplió. Cuando en 1520 Carlos V se hizo coronar
Emperador aportaba una enorme dote territorial, ya que era Rey de España, Rey
de Nápoles y Sicilia, rey de Cerdeña, duque de Borgoña y Archiduque de Austria.
Tras su abdicación repartió la herencia territorial entre su hermano Fernando I
y su hijo Felipe II. Si bien con Carlos V moría el sueño de la Universitas Christiana
unificada bajo un solo mando, lo cierto es que la Casa Habsburgo se convertía
en la más poderosa de Europa.
Al morir el rey Sebastián
I en la batalla de Alcazarquivir el 4 de agosto de 1578, en su intento por
entrometerse en la crisis de la dinastía Saadí de Marruecos, lo sucedió su
tío-abuelo Enrique I. El problema es que éste era cardenal y estaba atado a sus
votos de castidad. Intentó renunciar a sus votos pero el papa Gregorio XIII,
aliado de los Habsburgo, le negó tal posibilidad. Enrique I murió en 1580 sin
dejar descendencia, abriendo una crisis sucesoria en Portugal. Felipe II, que
había reclamado el trono por ser nieto por línea materna de Manuel I El
Afortunado (1495-1521), derrotó al pretendiente Antonio, prior de Cato, hijo
ilegítimo del infante Luis (nieto de Manuel I), en la batalla de Alcántara (26
de agosto de 1580).
El Reino conservó su
autonomía y autogobierno pero fue convertido de hecho en un Virreinato
supervisado por el Rey desde Madrid a través de un Consejo de Portugal (que
funcionó desde 1582 hasta 1668) según un régimen polisinodial basado en
Consejos Territoriales. En Lisboa funcionó un Conselho de Estado y un Conselho
da Fazenda para asuntos consultivos de política exterior y control de la
Hacienda. También se instaló un Conselho da India para los asuntos
ultramarinos, que funcionó brevemente entre 1604 y 1614. Las instituciones de
justicia para asuntos civiles y religiosos fueron conservadas sin intromisiones
importantes (Mesa da Consciência e Ordens, Desembargo do Paço). Los portugueses conservaron sus fueros,
costumbres, privilegios y gran parte de sus tropas y flotas.
Pero
la inclusión de Portugal en la Monarquía Católica le significó convertirse en
un objetivo de aquellas naciones enemigas de Roma y de los Austrias. En efecto,
ingleses, holandeses y franceses se encargaron de atacar sistemáticamente las
posesiones ultramarinas portuguesas hasta, finalmente, desplazarlo del dominio
de las rutas comerciales importantes. Cuando los Habsburgo fueron expulsados en
1640, Portugal había perdido el control del Índico, también de África y todo su
Imperio estaba amenazado con la ruina.
Aunque
Portugal ya había perdido varias plazas en el conflicto con la Dinastía Saadí
marroquí (conflicto que fue, además, antecedente de la crisis dinástica de
1580), la guerra que sostuvo contra Holanda fue la más costosa en materia
territorial. Al ingresar en la Monarquía Católica, Portugal debió pagar parte
del costo de la Guerra de los 80 Años (1568-1648) que enfrentaba a los Países Bajos
contra Felipe II. Se vio envuelta en un conflicto ultramarino conocido como
Guerra Luso-Neerlandesa (1588-1661) que la enfrentó a los Países Bajos y su
aliada Inglaterra. La Compañía Holandesa de las Indias Orientales, fundada en
1602, estableció su primera base en las islas Molucas en 1605 al ocupar el
fuerte portugués de Amboyna. El gran duelo por el dominio del mercado de
especias se dio cuando la disputa por el fuerte Solor en la isla indonesia de
Ambón, iniciado en 1600. El conflicto terminó con la definitiva captura del
bastión por la Compañía Holandesa de las Indias Orientales en 1636. En 1619 los
holandeses tomaron la ciudad de Jayakarta (actual Jakarta) y la rebautizaron
Batavia, convirtiéndola en centro de las actividades comerciales en la región. El
dominio de la región se completó con la toma de Malaca en 1641, Achem (Aceh) en
1667, Macassar en 1669 y Bantam en 1682. Tras la definitiva conquista de
Ceilán, tras una guerra de duró de 1636 hasta 1658 la Compañía Holandesa de las
Indias Orientales trasladó a la isla el centro de operaciones. Los holandeses
arrebataron a los portugueses varios puestos en la India: Hugli-Chuchura en
1656, Nagapattinam en 1657, Thoothukudi en 1658, Kollam en 1661, Cochín y
Cananor en 1663.
Los
holandeses controlaron parte de Taiwán desde Fort Zeeland entre 1624 y 1662.
Desde allí se hicieron con el control del comercio con China y Japón. Lograron
la exclusividad del comercio extranjero con este último país en 1641 tras la
expulsión de portugueses y españoles de la isla de Dejima, Nagasaki y
Tanegashima en 1638. La expulsión se dio a raíz de su apoyo a los católicos
japoneses en la Rebelión Shimabara de 1637. En esa ocasión el shōgun japonés Iemitsu (1617-1851) contó con el apoyo
de los holandeses protestantes del puerto de Hirado (donde residían desde
1609). La presencia holandesa en la isla artificial Dejima se mantuvo hasta
1853.
Los
ingleses, aliados de los holandeses, hicieron su parte para desalojar a
Portugal de su posición monopólica en el Índico. En 1608 la Compañía Británica
de las Indias Orientales, fundada en 1600, estableció su primera delegación
comercial en la ciudad portuaria de Surat. Los días 29 y 30 de noviembre de
1612 lograron derrotar a los portugueses en la batalla naval de Swally. El
emperador mongol de la India ofreció su hospitalidad a los ingleses a partir de
1634 con amplias concesiones comerciales. Terminaron ocupando Bombay a partir
de 1665 (la habían atacado en 1626) como parte del acuerdo matrimonial de 1661
entre Carlos II y la infanta doña Catarina Enriqueta de Braganza. Bombay sería
la sede de la Compañía Británica de las Indias Orientales a partir de 1687. En
1666 la ciudad de Chittagong pasó a dominio británico. Gran Bretaña jugó un rol
importante en la expulsión de los portugueses del área del Mar Rojo y del Golfo
Pérsico. Para ello se infiltraron en los asuntos de los estados locales: la
Persia de Abbas el Grande, el sultanato Mahra de Qishn y Socotora y el
Sultanato de Omán. Precisamente el sultanato Mahra había arrebatado Socotora a
los portugueses en 1511 (al año siguiente los árabes expulsaron a los
portugueses de Kilwa Kisiwani, en la costa tanzana). Bahréin fue perdida en
1602 tras una rebelión popular chíí instigada por Abbás. Persia ocupó Bandar
Abbás en 1615 y Ormuz en 1622. Sin embargo lograron conservar la isla de Qeshm
hasta su ocupación por los holandeses en 1683. Mascate fue perdida en 1650 ante
un asalto de las tropas del Imam Omaní Nasir
bin Murshid al-Yaribi. En 1698 los
omanís arrebataban Zanzíbar a los portugueses y amenazaban sus posesiones en
África Oriental. En 1630 Portugal perdía su influencia en la ciudad portuaria
swahili de Malindi y en la costa de Tanganica. En 1633 el emperador etíope
Fasiladas el Grande (1632-1667) decreta la expulsión de los jesuitas poniendo
fin a la presencia portuguesa en ese estado africano.
La
Costa de Oro (Ghana) fue atacada por holandeses e ingleses desde 1637. Mina
cayó en su poder en 1642 surgiendo así la Guinea Holandesa. Entre 1633 y 1655
los holandeses retuvieron la isla de Arguim (actual Mauritania). A partir de
1652 los holandeses se establecieron en El Cabo de Buena Esperanza.
A
esto se suman los ataques y asentamientos franceses en Azores y Brasil. Estos
ataques se hicieron en el contexto de la intervención española apoyando a la
Liga Católica contra los hugonotes en la Séptima Guerra de Religión Francesa
(Guerra de los Amantes, 1579-80) y en la terrible Octava Guerra de Religión
Francesa (Guerra de los Tres Enriques, 1585-98). Luego se continuaron en el
marco de la Guerra de los Treinta Años (1618-48). Los franceses intervinieron
en las Azores en 1582 en apoyo de los rebeldes de Isla Terceira. Felipe II los
derrotó en la Batalla naval de Isla Terceira o de San Miguel (26 de julio de
1582). Los ingleses volverían a intervenir en las Azores en 1589 en el marco del
conflicto Luso-Neerlandés.
En
1590 corsarios franceses fundaron la factoría de Ibiapaba y el Fort Saint
Alexis en la abandonada Capitanía de Ceará. Fueron expulsados en una campaña
realizada en los años 1603 y 1604 por el capitán mayor Pero Coelho de Souza.
También se destruyeron las construcciones francesas en La Ravardière
(actual Guayana Francesa) establecidas en 1604 y abandonadas al año siguiente
debido a la hostilidad indígena y las pestes. En medio de este conflicto con
franceses, en 1592, el inglés Thomas Cavendish ataca Vitória, en la Capitanía
de Espírito Santo, pero es rechazado con éxito por las fuerzas locales. El 8 de
setiembre de 1612 Daniel de La Touche funda Saint Louis (Francia Equinoccial)
en la abandonada Capitanía de Maranhão.
Defendieron la ciudad hasta su conquista por Jerónimo de Albuquerque en 1615.
En 1621 se crea la
Compañía Neerlandesa de las Indias Occidentales, con el objetivo de desalojar a
Portugal del control atlántico del comercio de esclavos y azúcar. Las
Provincias Unidas Neerlandesas y la Compañía intentaron sistemáticamente la
conquista de Brasil. En 1624 ocuparon San Salvador de Bahía, aunque serían
repelidos por la expedición hispano-portuguesa de Fadrique de Toledo un año
después. Otro ataque en 1627 no prosperó aunque se perdió casi toda la flota
portuguesa. En 1628 los holandeses ocuparon la isla Fernando de Noronha y la
retuvieron hasta 1630 cuando intervino el superintendente de Pernambuco, Matías
de Albuquerque. Ese mismo año, sin embargo, debió hacer frente a la invasión
neerlandesa de la capitanía de Pernambuco. Pese a la enconada resistencia
local, liderada por Albuquerque, los holandeses, con la complicidad de algunos
grandes propietarios de ingenios azucareros, lograron dominar el territorio en
1635. También invadieron Rio Grande do Norte y Paraíba en 1634. La guerra
prosiguió en los hechos hasta 1654, y en los papeles hasta la firma de la Paz
de La Haya el 6 de agosto de 1661. La ocupación holandesa del Brasil (1630-54),
de São
Tomé y Príncipe (1641-1654) y de Luanda
(1640-48) significó el dominio atlántico neerlandés por un largo tiempo. Pero
la derrota de los holandeses, que se hizo en gran medida con esfuerzo local,
repercutiría en la formación de una conciencia localista considerada el embrión
del nacionalismo brasileño.
En Portugal se había
gestado un movimiento de resistencia a la ocupación española que se manifestó
en las frustradas revueltas de 1634 y 1637 en Alentejo. La definitiva rebelión
se dio con motivo de la guerra entre España y Francia. En esa ocasión, cuando
el Conde-Duque de Olivares, valido del rey español Felipe IV, intentó usar
tropas portuguesas para sofocar la revuelta catalana, una conspiración dirigida
por Juan II, duque de Braganza, con apoyo francés, declaró la independencia el
1 de diciembre de 1640 (Restauração). El duque de Braganza asumió como Juan IV, pero Felipe IV no renunció a
sus derechos a la corona portuguesa hasta 1668 tras varios intentos de derrotar
a los separatistas.
Portugal se separaba
de la Monarquía Católica con el saldo negativo de haber perdido el control del
Océano Índico, pero al menos había conseguido restaurar su fortaleza en el
Atlántico. A partir de ese momento comenzaría un duelo con España que tendría
importantes consecuencias para la América Latina actual.
ARTÍCULO ANTERIOR:
NOSOTROS LOS PORTUGUESES (III): EL DOMINIO DE MEDIO MUNDO
ARTÍCULO SIGUIENTE:
NOSOTROS LOS PORTUGUESES (V): PORTUGUESE AMERICAN
ARTÍCULO ANTERIOR:
NOSOTROS LOS PORTUGUESES (III): EL DOMINIO DE MEDIO MUNDO
ARTÍCULO SIGUIENTE:
NOSOTROS LOS PORTUGUESES (V): PORTUGUESE AMERICAN
Article in English
There may be errors in translation
WE THE PORTUGUESE (IV): AEIOU DOMINIUM
MUNDI
The Portuguese monarchy managed to consolidate throughout the late Middle Ages retaining its autonomy from the universal powers. He managed to stay out of the issues of the Roman Empire and also knew maneuver independence from the pressures of the Church. However he failed to escape its influence in the Renaissance. To understand this process we must go back in time.
The Nea Roma (Constantinople) is possibly the source of the idea of merging the spiritual and temporal powers in the figure of a Sacerdos Imperator. The priest-kings are an oriental inspiration and, in fact, existed in ancient Rome, introduced by Eastern emperors of the Severan dynasty. These Oriental influences hatched in the Byzantine monarchy, theocratic clear guidance.
The Roman papacy, alleged head of the hierarchy (as part of a concentration of power began in the times of Roman Empire), he ended up developing the "doctrine of the two swords" (utrumque gladium). Apparently the doctrine was established by Pope Gelasius in a letter to the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I (491-518). According to her, the two spiritual powers that should be more than temporary. Thus the Roman Papacy declared its intention not to be subject to the Emperor of Constantinople. The idea of papal supremacy was based on the Political Augustinism, the plenitudo potestatis and apocryphal Donatio Constantini.
Roman doctrine was implemented using the support of the United Franco, an ally of Rome since the days of Clovis (481-507). With the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III in 800 the restauratio Imperii project was realized, a little response to Renovatio or Recuperatio Imperii the Byzantine emperor Justinian I. But Charlemagne opposed the doctrine of the two swords being a first example of Western cesaropapismo: the meeting of the two powers in the figure of the Emperor and the subordination of the ecclesiastical apparatus to its dictates.
Just to the decrees of 1075, issued by Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085), was established the dictatus papae, according to which the Pope was the only legitimate owner of the Empire, the Emperor being relegated to subordinate level. The emperor replied with the doctrine of translatio imperii, which regarded the Empire as a figure above the Church and therefore superior to it. This was the essence of the Investiture Controversy (1075-1122) and the long succession of conflicts between Guelphs and Ghibellines ranging from 1140-1454 that faced the universal powers throughout the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance .
The confrontation weakened both powers, Church and Empire, for the benefit of European kingdoms were consolidating their territorial, political and economic sovereignty. The Great Interregnum (1256-1273) who kept the Vacant in the Roman Empire and the Western Schism (1378-1417), during which three Popes vied power, damaged the image of the universal powers in a way almost irretrievable.
However the Dominium Mundi would not be abandoned so easily. What revived the two powers was the Protestant Reformation and Schism (1517-1555). The great concentration of power in the figure of the Emperor Charles V of Hapsburg (1520-1558) would revive the imperial Dominium Mundi in the figure of the Universitas Christiana. The Church, meanwhile, took the lead in the fight against the Reformation after the Council of Trent (1545-63).
House Habsburg had seized power in the Holy Roman Empire during the Great Interregnum, when Rudolph I was crowned as King of the Romans (ie, Emperor not legitimized by the Church) in 1273. Only in 1452 would get to be crowned Frederick III legitimate emperor by the pope. Frederick III (1415-1493) was the first to add the famous and mysterious four letters (AEIOU) to the Hapsburg House. Many believe that means Alles ist Österreich Erdreich Untertan (All are subject to Austria). And certainly the motto almost fulfilled. When in 1520 Charles V was crowned emperor brought a huge territorial dowry, as it was the King of Spain, King of Naples and Sicily, King of Sardinia, Duke of Burgundy and Archduke of Austria. After his abdication he distributed the land inheritance between his brother Ferdinand I and his son Philip II. While Carlos V died with the dream of Universitas Christiana unified under one command, the truth is that the House Hapsburg became the most powerful in Europe.
The death of the king Sebastián I Alcazarquivir the battle of August 4, 1578, in an attempt to meddle in the crisis of Morocco Saadi dynasty, succeeded his great-uncle Henry I. The problem is that this was cardinal and I was tied to their vows of chastity. He tried to give up their votes but Pope Gregory XIII, an ally of the Habsburgs, denied such a possibility. Henry I died childless in 1580, opening a succession crisis in Portugal. Philip II, who had claimed the throne by matrilineal be grandson of Manuel I the Fortunate (1495-1521), defeated the pretender Antonio, prior of Cato, illegitimate son of the Infante Luis (grandson of Manuel I), in the battle of Alcantara (26 August 1580). The Spanish troops, commanded by Grand Duke of Alba, militarily occupied the country. The March 25, 1581 Take Courts consecrate the dynastic union aeque principaliter crowning Philip II of Spain as king of Portugal with the name of Felipe I. In fall 1583 the last bastion of the rebels loyal to Antonio on Terceira Island ( Azores). Portugal was integrated in this way the Catholic Monarchy.
The United retained their autonomy and self-government but was actually turned into a Viceroyalty supervised by the King from Madrid through a Council of Portugal (which ran from 1582 to 1668) according to a polisinodial regime based on regional boards. In Lisbon he ran a Conselho State and advisory Conselho da Fazenda for foreign affairs and finance control. Also it installed a Conselho da India for groceries affairs, worked briefly between 1604 and 1614. The institutions of justice for civil and religious affairs were retained without major interference (Mesa da awareness and Ordens, Desembargo do Paço). The Portuguese kept their privileges, customs, privileges and much of their troops and fleets.
But the inclusion of Portugal in the Catholic Monarchy meant it to become a target of those enemy nations of Rome and the Habsburgs. Indeed, English, Dutch and French were responsible for systematically attacking the Portuguese overseas possessions until, finally, I move the domain of major trade routes. When the Habsburgs were expelled in 1640, Portugal had lost control of the Indian, African and also all his empire was threatened with ruin.
Although Portugal had lost several places in conflict with Moroccan Saadi Dynasty (conflict also was a history of dynastic crisis of 1580), which held war against Holland was the most expensive in territorial terms. By accessing the Catholic monarchy, Portugal had to pay part of the cost of the 80 Years War (1568-1648) that faced the Netherlands against Philip II. I was involved in an overseas conflict known as Luso-Dutch War (1588-1661) that faced the Netherlands and its ally England. The Dutch East India Company, founded in 1602, established its first base in the Moluccas in 1605 to occupy the Portuguese fort of Amboyna. The great duel for dominance of the spice market was when the dispute by strong Solor on the Indonesian island of Ambon, which began in 1600. The conflict ended with the final capture of the stronghold by the Dutch East India Company in 1636. In 1619 the Dutch took the city of Jayakarta (now Jakarta) and renamed Batavia, making it the center of trade activities in the region. The dominance of the region was completed with the capture of Malacca in 1641, Achem (Aceh) in 1667, Macassar in 1669 and Bantam in 1682. After the definitive conquest of Ceylon, after a war lasted from 1636-1658 the Dutch Company East India moved to the island hub. The Dutch seized the Portuguese several positions in India: Hugli-Chuchura in 1656, Nagapattinam in 1657, Thoothukudi in 1658, Kollam in 1661, Cochin and Cannanore in 1663.
The Dutch controlled part of Taiwan from Fort Zeeland between 1624 and 1662. From there they took control of trade with China and Japan. They obtained the exclusive foreign trade with the latter country in 1641 after the expulsion of Portuguese and Spanish on the island of Dejima, Nagasaki and Tanegashima in 1638. The expulsion came because of his support for Japanese Catholics in the Shimabara Rebellion of 1637 . At that time the Japanese shogun Iemitsu (1617-1851) had the support of Protestant Dutch Harbor Hirado (where they lived from 1609). The Dutch presence on the artificial island Dejima remained until 1853.
The English, the Dutch allies, did their part to evict Portugal its monopoly position in the Indian Ocean. In 1608 the East India Company, founded in 1600, established its first sales office in the port city of Surat. On 29 and 30 November 1612 to defeat the Portuguese in the naval battle of Swally. The Mughal emperor of India offered its hospitality to the English from 1634 with extensive trade concessions. They ended up occupying Bombay from 1665 (it had been attacked in 1626) as part of the marriage settlement of 1661 between Charles II and the Infanta Dona Enriqueta Catherine of Braganza. Mumbai would be the headquarters of the East India Company from 1687. In 1666 the city of Chittagong became British rule. Britain played a major role in the expulsion of the Portuguese area of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. To do infiltrated the affairs of local states: Persia Abbas the Great, the Mahra Sultanate of Mahra Sultanate and the Sultanate of Oman. Precisely the Mahra sultanate had taken Socotora the Portuguese in 1511 (the following year the Arabs expelled the Portuguese from Kilwa Kisiwani, in the Tanzanian coast). Bahrain was lost in 1602 after a popular Shiite rebellion instigated by Abbas. Persia took Bandar Abbas in Hormuz in 1615 and 1622. However, they managed to preserve the island of Qeshm until occupied by the Dutch in 1683. Muscat was lost in 1650 against an assault by the troops of Imam Nasir bin Murshid Omani al-Yaribi. In 1698 the Omani Zanzibar snatched and threatened the Portuguese possessions in East Africa. In 1630 Portugal lost its influence on the Swahili port town of Malindi and the coast of Tanganyika. In 1633 the Ethiopian emperor Fasiladas the Great (1632-1667) decreed the expulsion of the Jesuits ending the Portuguese presence in that African state.
The Gold Coast (Ghana) was attacked by Dutch and English since 1637. Mina fell into emerging power in 1642 and the Dutch Guinea. Between 1633 and 1655 the Dutch retained Arguim Island (now Mauritania). From 1652 the Dutch settled at the Cape of Good Hope.
To this the attacks and French colonies in the Azores and Brazil are added. These attacks were made in the context of the Spanish intervention supporting the Catholic League against the Huguenots in the French Seventh War of Religion (War of the Lovers, 1579-80) and in the terrible Eighth French War of Religion (War of the Three Enriques, 1585-1598). They then continued in the framework of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). The French intervened in the Azores in 1582 in support of the rebels of Terceira Island. Felipe II defeated at the naval Battle of Terceira Island or San Miguel (26 July 1582). The British would again intervene in the Azores in 1589 under the Luso-Dutch conflict.
French privateers in 1590 founded the factory Ibiapaba and Fort Saint Alexis in the abandoned Captaincy of Ceará. They were expelled in a campaign in the years 1603 and 1604 by as captain but Coelho de Souza. The French construction in Ravardière (now Guyana) established in 1604 and abandoned the next year because the indigenous hostility and pests were also destroyed. In the midst of this conflict with the French, in 1592, the Englishman Thomas Cavendish attacks Vitória, in the captaincy of Espirito Santo, but is rejected successfully by local forces. On September 8, 1612 Daniel de La Touche founded Saint Louis (France Equator) in the abandoned Captaincy of Maranhão. They defended the city until its conquest by Jeronimo de Albuquerque in 1615.
In 1621 the Dutch West India Company was created, with the aim of evicting control Portugal Atlantic slave trade and sugar. The United Provinces Netherlands and the Company systematically attempted conquest of Brazil. In 1624 they occupied San Salvador, although they would be repelled by the Spanish-Portuguese expedition Fadrique of Toledo a year later. Another attack in 1627 was unsuccessful although almost all the Portuguese fleet was lost. In 1628 the Dutch occupied the island Fernando de Noronha and held until 1630 when he intervened superintendent in Pernambuco, Matias de Albuquerque. That same year, however, he had to face the Dutch invasion of Pernambuco captaincy. Despite the fierce local resistance, led by Albuquerque, the Dutch, with the complicity of some big sugar mill owners, to dominate the territory in 1635. It also invaded Rio Grande do Norte and Paraiba in 1634. The war continued until the facts 1654, and on paper until the signing of the Peace of The Hague on 6 August 1661. The Dutch occupation of Brazil (1630-1654) of São Tomé and Principe (1641 to 1654) and Luanda (1640-1648 ) meant the Dutch Atlantic domain for a long time. But the defeat of the Dutch, who became largely local effort, an impact on the formation of a parochial consciousness considered the embryo of Brazilian nationalism.
Portugal had been developed in a movement of resistance to Spanish occupation that was manifested in the frustrated 1634 and 1637 riots in Alentejo. The final rebellion occurred on the occasion of the war between Spain and France. On that occasion, when the Count-Duke of Olivares, favorite of the Spanish King Philip IV, tried to use Portuguese troops to quell the Catalan revolt, a conspiracy directed by John II, Duke of Braganza, with French support, he declared independence on 1 December 1640 (Restauração). The Duke of Braganza assumed as John IV, but Felipe IV did not renounce their rights to the Portuguese crown in 1668 after several attempts to defeat the separatists.
Portugal was separated from the Catholic Monarchy with the negative balance of having lost control of the Indian Ocean, but at least had managed to restore their strength in the Atlantic. From that moment he begins a duel with Spain that would have important implications for the current Latin America.
The Portuguese monarchy managed to consolidate throughout the late Middle Ages retaining its autonomy from the universal powers. He managed to stay out of the issues of the Roman Empire and also knew maneuver independence from the pressures of the Church. However he failed to escape its influence in the Renaissance. To understand this process we must go back in time.
The Nea Roma (Constantinople) is possibly the source of the idea of merging the spiritual and temporal powers in the figure of a Sacerdos Imperator. The priest-kings are an oriental inspiration and, in fact, existed in ancient Rome, introduced by Eastern emperors of the Severan dynasty. These Oriental influences hatched in the Byzantine monarchy, theocratic clear guidance.
The Roman papacy, alleged head of the hierarchy (as part of a concentration of power began in the times of Roman Empire), he ended up developing the "doctrine of the two swords" (utrumque gladium). Apparently the doctrine was established by Pope Gelasius in a letter to the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I (491-518). According to her, the two spiritual powers that should be more than temporary. Thus the Roman Papacy declared its intention not to be subject to the Emperor of Constantinople. The idea of papal supremacy was based on the Political Augustinism, the plenitudo potestatis and apocryphal Donatio Constantini.
Roman doctrine was implemented using the support of the United Franco, an ally of Rome since the days of Clovis (481-507). With the coronation of Charlemagne by Pope Leo III in 800 the restauratio Imperii project was realized, a little response to Renovatio or Recuperatio Imperii the Byzantine emperor Justinian I. But Charlemagne opposed the doctrine of the two swords being a first example of Western cesaropapismo: the meeting of the two powers in the figure of the Emperor and the subordination of the ecclesiastical apparatus to its dictates.
Just to the decrees of 1075, issued by Pope Gregory VII (1073-1085), was established the dictatus papae, according to which the Pope was the only legitimate owner of the Empire, the Emperor being relegated to subordinate level. The emperor replied with the doctrine of translatio imperii, which regarded the Empire as a figure above the Church and therefore superior to it. This was the essence of the Investiture Controversy (1075-1122) and the long succession of conflicts between Guelphs and Ghibellines ranging from 1140-1454 that faced the universal powers throughout the late Middle Ages and early Renaissance .
The confrontation weakened both powers, Church and Empire, for the benefit of European kingdoms were consolidating their territorial, political and economic sovereignty. The Great Interregnum (1256-1273) who kept the Vacant in the Roman Empire and the Western Schism (1378-1417), during which three Popes vied power, damaged the image of the universal powers in a way almost irretrievable.
However the Dominium Mundi would not be abandoned so easily. What revived the two powers was the Protestant Reformation and Schism (1517-1555). The great concentration of power in the figure of the Emperor Charles V of Hapsburg (1520-1558) would revive the imperial Dominium Mundi in the figure of the Universitas Christiana. The Church, meanwhile, took the lead in the fight against the Reformation after the Council of Trent (1545-63).
House Habsburg had seized power in the Holy Roman Empire during the Great Interregnum, when Rudolph I was crowned as King of the Romans (ie, Emperor not legitimized by the Church) in 1273. Only in 1452 would get to be crowned Frederick III legitimate emperor by the pope. Frederick III (1415-1493) was the first to add the famous and mysterious four letters (AEIOU) to the Hapsburg House. Many believe that means Alles ist Österreich Erdreich Untertan (All are subject to Austria). And certainly the motto almost fulfilled. When in 1520 Charles V was crowned emperor brought a huge territorial dowry, as it was the King of Spain, King of Naples and Sicily, King of Sardinia, Duke of Burgundy and Archduke of Austria. After his abdication he distributed the land inheritance between his brother Ferdinand I and his son Philip II. While Carlos V died with the dream of Universitas Christiana unified under one command, the truth is that the House Hapsburg became the most powerful in Europe.
The death of the king Sebastián I Alcazarquivir the battle of August 4, 1578, in an attempt to meddle in the crisis of Morocco Saadi dynasty, succeeded his great-uncle Henry I. The problem is that this was cardinal and I was tied to their vows of chastity. He tried to give up their votes but Pope Gregory XIII, an ally of the Habsburgs, denied such a possibility. Henry I died childless in 1580, opening a succession crisis in Portugal. Philip II, who had claimed the throne by matrilineal be grandson of Manuel I the Fortunate (1495-1521), defeated the pretender Antonio, prior of Cato, illegitimate son of the Infante Luis (grandson of Manuel I), in the battle of Alcantara (26 August 1580). The Spanish troops, commanded by Grand Duke of Alba, militarily occupied the country. The March 25, 1581 Take Courts consecrate the dynastic union aeque principaliter crowning Philip II of Spain as king of Portugal with the name of Felipe I. In fall 1583 the last bastion of the rebels loyal to Antonio on Terceira Island ( Azores). Portugal was integrated in this way the Catholic Monarchy.
The United retained their autonomy and self-government but was actually turned into a Viceroyalty supervised by the King from Madrid through a Council of Portugal (which ran from 1582 to 1668) according to a polisinodial regime based on regional boards. In Lisbon he ran a Conselho State and advisory Conselho da Fazenda for foreign affairs and finance control. Also it installed a Conselho da India for groceries affairs, worked briefly between 1604 and 1614. The institutions of justice for civil and religious affairs were retained without major interference (Mesa da awareness and Ordens, Desembargo do Paço). The Portuguese kept their privileges, customs, privileges and much of their troops and fleets.
But the inclusion of Portugal in the Catholic Monarchy meant it to become a target of those enemy nations of Rome and the Habsburgs. Indeed, English, Dutch and French were responsible for systematically attacking the Portuguese overseas possessions until, finally, I move the domain of major trade routes. When the Habsburgs were expelled in 1640, Portugal had lost control of the Indian, African and also all his empire was threatened with ruin.
Although Portugal had lost several places in conflict with Moroccan Saadi Dynasty (conflict also was a history of dynastic crisis of 1580), which held war against Holland was the most expensive in territorial terms. By accessing the Catholic monarchy, Portugal had to pay part of the cost of the 80 Years War (1568-1648) that faced the Netherlands against Philip II. I was involved in an overseas conflict known as Luso-Dutch War (1588-1661) that faced the Netherlands and its ally England. The Dutch East India Company, founded in 1602, established its first base in the Moluccas in 1605 to occupy the Portuguese fort of Amboyna. The great duel for dominance of the spice market was when the dispute by strong Solor on the Indonesian island of Ambon, which began in 1600. The conflict ended with the final capture of the stronghold by the Dutch East India Company in 1636. In 1619 the Dutch took the city of Jayakarta (now Jakarta) and renamed Batavia, making it the center of trade activities in the region. The dominance of the region was completed with the capture of Malacca in 1641, Achem (Aceh) in 1667, Macassar in 1669 and Bantam in 1682. After the definitive conquest of Ceylon, after a war lasted from 1636-1658 the Dutch Company East India moved to the island hub. The Dutch seized the Portuguese several positions in India: Hugli-Chuchura in 1656, Nagapattinam in 1657, Thoothukudi in 1658, Kollam in 1661, Cochin and Cannanore in 1663.
The Dutch controlled part of Taiwan from Fort Zeeland between 1624 and 1662. From there they took control of trade with China and Japan. They obtained the exclusive foreign trade with the latter country in 1641 after the expulsion of Portuguese and Spanish on the island of Dejima, Nagasaki and Tanegashima in 1638. The expulsion came because of his support for Japanese Catholics in the Shimabara Rebellion of 1637 . At that time the Japanese shogun Iemitsu (1617-1851) had the support of Protestant Dutch Harbor Hirado (where they lived from 1609). The Dutch presence on the artificial island Dejima remained until 1853.
The English, the Dutch allies, did their part to evict Portugal its monopoly position in the Indian Ocean. In 1608 the East India Company, founded in 1600, established its first sales office in the port city of Surat. On 29 and 30 November 1612 to defeat the Portuguese in the naval battle of Swally. The Mughal emperor of India offered its hospitality to the English from 1634 with extensive trade concessions. They ended up occupying Bombay from 1665 (it had been attacked in 1626) as part of the marriage settlement of 1661 between Charles II and the Infanta Dona Enriqueta Catherine of Braganza. Mumbai would be the headquarters of the East India Company from 1687. In 1666 the city of Chittagong became British rule. Britain played a major role in the expulsion of the Portuguese area of the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. To do infiltrated the affairs of local states: Persia Abbas the Great, the Mahra Sultanate of Mahra Sultanate and the Sultanate of Oman. Precisely the Mahra sultanate had taken Socotora the Portuguese in 1511 (the following year the Arabs expelled the Portuguese from Kilwa Kisiwani, in the Tanzanian coast). Bahrain was lost in 1602 after a popular Shiite rebellion instigated by Abbas. Persia took Bandar Abbas in Hormuz in 1615 and 1622. However, they managed to preserve the island of Qeshm until occupied by the Dutch in 1683. Muscat was lost in 1650 against an assault by the troops of Imam Nasir bin Murshid Omani al-Yaribi. In 1698 the Omani Zanzibar snatched and threatened the Portuguese possessions in East Africa. In 1630 Portugal lost its influence on the Swahili port town of Malindi and the coast of Tanganyika. In 1633 the Ethiopian emperor Fasiladas the Great (1632-1667) decreed the expulsion of the Jesuits ending the Portuguese presence in that African state.
The Gold Coast (Ghana) was attacked by Dutch and English since 1637. Mina fell into emerging power in 1642 and the Dutch Guinea. Between 1633 and 1655 the Dutch retained Arguim Island (now Mauritania). From 1652 the Dutch settled at the Cape of Good Hope.
To this the attacks and French colonies in the Azores and Brazil are added. These attacks were made in the context of the Spanish intervention supporting the Catholic League against the Huguenots in the French Seventh War of Religion (War of the Lovers, 1579-80) and in the terrible Eighth French War of Religion (War of the Three Enriques, 1585-1598). They then continued in the framework of the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). The French intervened in the Azores in 1582 in support of the rebels of Terceira Island. Felipe II defeated at the naval Battle of Terceira Island or San Miguel (26 July 1582). The British would again intervene in the Azores in 1589 under the Luso-Dutch conflict.
French privateers in 1590 founded the factory Ibiapaba and Fort Saint Alexis in the abandoned Captaincy of Ceará. They were expelled in a campaign in the years 1603 and 1604 by as captain but Coelho de Souza. The French construction in Ravardière (now Guyana) established in 1604 and abandoned the next year because the indigenous hostility and pests were also destroyed. In the midst of this conflict with the French, in 1592, the Englishman Thomas Cavendish attacks Vitória, in the captaincy of Espirito Santo, but is rejected successfully by local forces. On September 8, 1612 Daniel de La Touche founded Saint Louis (France Equator) in the abandoned Captaincy of Maranhão. They defended the city until its conquest by Jeronimo de Albuquerque in 1615.
In 1621 the Dutch West India Company was created, with the aim of evicting control Portugal Atlantic slave trade and sugar. The United Provinces Netherlands and the Company systematically attempted conquest of Brazil. In 1624 they occupied San Salvador, although they would be repelled by the Spanish-Portuguese expedition Fadrique of Toledo a year later. Another attack in 1627 was unsuccessful although almost all the Portuguese fleet was lost. In 1628 the Dutch occupied the island Fernando de Noronha and held until 1630 when he intervened superintendent in Pernambuco, Matias de Albuquerque. That same year, however, he had to face the Dutch invasion of Pernambuco captaincy. Despite the fierce local resistance, led by Albuquerque, the Dutch, with the complicity of some big sugar mill owners, to dominate the territory in 1635. It also invaded Rio Grande do Norte and Paraiba in 1634. The war continued until the facts 1654, and on paper until the signing of the Peace of The Hague on 6 August 1661. The Dutch occupation of Brazil (1630-1654) of São Tomé and Principe (1641 to 1654) and Luanda (1640-1648 ) meant the Dutch Atlantic domain for a long time. But the defeat of the Dutch, who became largely local effort, an impact on the formation of a parochial consciousness considered the embryo of Brazilian nationalism.
Portugal had been developed in a movement of resistance to Spanish occupation that was manifested in the frustrated 1634 and 1637 riots in Alentejo. The final rebellion occurred on the occasion of the war between Spain and France. On that occasion, when the Count-Duke of Olivares, favorite of the Spanish King Philip IV, tried to use Portuguese troops to quell the Catalan revolt, a conspiracy directed by John II, Duke of Braganza, with French support, he declared independence on 1 December 1640 (Restauração). The Duke of Braganza assumed as John IV, but Felipe IV did not renounce their rights to the Portuguese crown in 1668 after several attempts to defeat the separatists.
Portugal was separated from the Catholic Monarchy with the negative balance of having lost control of the Indian Ocean, but at least had managed to restore their strength in the Atlantic. From that moment he begins a duel with Spain that would have important implications for the current Latin America.
«Philip II's
realms in 1598» de Trasamundo. - Trabajo propio. Sources:Atlas
histórico mundial by Hermann Kinder and Werner Hilgemann ISBN
84-790-005-6.About the extension of Brazil: [1]About Florida: The failure of
colonization ([2][3][4][5][6][7][8]) Missions in Florida and Georgia
([9][10][11]) Juanillo rebellion in Florida ([12], [13])Estado da India: File
talk:Spanish Empire Anachronous 0.PNG#Sources. Disponible bajo la licencia CC BY-SA 3.0 vía Wikimedia Commons -
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png#/media/File:Philip_II%27s_realms_in_1598.png
«Escudo de Armas
de Felipe II a Carlos II» de Miguillen - Trabajo propio. Disponible bajo la
licencia GFDL vía Wikimedia Commons -
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Escudo_de_Armas_de_Felipe_II_a_Carlos_II.svg#/media/File:Escudo_de_Armas_de_Felipe_II_a_Carlos_II.svg
http://api.ning.com/files/evAvJLfnnRy6ekSNM3WYl06TAhZ*zsXK48nJ1Lt3nGAy-WAKXl*zxBXttPnKscxDbu3YuZCOsWyNSqS3xZAuYhBoPpEasmZt/felipeiiimperioeuropa.jpg
«Nederlands-Brazillië» de H. Hettema jr. (ed.) -
Groote Historische Schoolatlas ten gebruike bij het onderwijs in de
vaderlandsche en algemene geschiedenis. Disponible bajo la licencia Dominio público vía Wikimedia Commons -
https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Nederlands-Brazilli%C3%AB.jpg#/media/File:Nederlands-Brazilli%C3%AB.jpg
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